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Avatara: Divine Descent

The notion of avatara, or divine descent, refers to both the act of a deity descending to earth and the physical form it takes on earth. Worshipers perceive the image, or avatara, of a descending deity as a manifestation of that deity. The term is derived from the Sanskrit verb tr, meaning to cross over, and is related to the term tirtha, meaning ford or path. Tirtha is also the Sanskrit word for places of pilgrimage, including all Indian temples, which allow for passage between heaven and earth by both the avatara and the worshiper. The concept of the tirtha is particularly evident in the nomenclature of the Jain faith. In early Jain literature, the enlightened being (one who has attained perfect knowledge) is referred to as Jina, or Victor; in popular language, this being was known as Tirthankara, or Ford-Maker—that is, one who has reached the far shore. The idea of an image embodying the descending deity is especially prominent in Vaishnava philosophy. Vishnu periodically assumes an avatara when he descends to earth and intercedes for the benefit of humankind. The ten avataras of Vishnu are identified in most traditions as Matsya (fish); Kurma (tortoise); Varaha (boar); Narasimha (manlion); Vamana (dwarf); Parashurama (axe-wielding Brahmin); Rama; Krishna; the Buddha; and Kalki (the avatara yet to come). As is evident in surviving Chola bronzes and literary sources, two of the most popular avataras during the Chola period were Krishna and Rama. Chola artists focused on Vishnu’s role as the defender of dharma (order), for example as he battles the serpent Kaliya at the River Yamuna. Similarly, Chola artists sought to capture in bronze the hero Rama who mightily defeats the demon army of Lanka and reestablishes the kingdom of Ayodhya in the ancient epic, the Ramayana. The avataras Krishna and Rama not only captivated the Chola artists but also the Vaishnava poet-saints, as is evident in this hymn by Saint Nammalvar, who praises Rama as the highest manifestation of the divine: Why would anyone want to learn anything but Rama? Beginning with the low grass and the creeping ant with nothing whatever, he took everything in his city, everything moving, everything still, he took everything, everything born of the lord of four faces, he took them all to the very best of states.1
1. Tiruvaymoli 7.5.1. Translated in A. K. Ramanujan, Hymns for the Drowning: Poems for Vishnu by Nammalvar (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), 47.

Rama
Rama Chola period, 11th century Copper alloy H. 37 3/4 x W. 17 1/2 x D. 9 1/2 in. (95.9 x 44.5 x 24.1 cm) Asia Society, New York: Mr. and Mrs. John D. Rockefeller 3rd Collection, 1979.23
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Sculptures of Vishnu’s avatara Rama were commissioned for Vaishnava temples to form part of an assemblage that included his wife Sita, his brother Lakshmana, and the monkey general Hanuman. Rama, shown in the tribhanga, or triple-bend, posture, is ornamented with jewels, a halo-wheel, and a high crown that would have made him the tallest figure of this group. A bow was once held in his raised left hand and an arrow or arrows in his right. These attributes are associated with the imperial hunt and reflect the heroism of Rama, the protagonist of the popular Indian epic the Ramayana.
Rama
Krishna Dancing on Kaliya (Kaliyahimarddaka Krishna) Chola period, late 10th–early 11th century Copper alloy H. 34 1/2 x W. 16 x D. 11 in. (87.6 x 40.6 x 27.9 cm) Asia Society, New York: Mr. and Mrs. John D. Rockefeller 3rd Collection, 1979.22
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Vishnu’s manifestation as Krishna is often portrayed as a dancing heroic youth and is undoubtedly the prototype for the dancing form of Saint Sambandar. This masterful solid bronze sculpture captures Krishna’s moment of triumph over the serpent-demon Kaliya, who lived in the River Yamuna and terrorized the nearby communities. A Tamil hymn relates how Krishna dives from “the flowering blue katampa oak” into the water and dances on captive Kaliya as the gopi-handmaidens tremble. In this sculpture, Krishna is depicted as a bejeweled prince. He displays the gesture of protection with his right hand, while his upraised left hand (reminiscent of Rama’s nearby) holds Kaliya’s serpentine tail. Though the flat base of this sculpture is now damaged, it was most likely set into a lotus-shaped pedestal, characteristic of Chola period bronzes, for use in processions.
Rama
Vishnu Chola period, 11th century Copper alloy H. 7 1/4 in. (18.5 cm) Asia Society, New York: Gift from The Blanchette Hooker Rockefeller Fund, 1994.3
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The small scale of this bronze and the lower quality of its casting suggest that it was used in household devotion—a rising practice during the Chola period that created a demand for portable metal images. Both the presence of an inscription and the articulation of this form of Vishnu—shown with sixteen arms in a walking posture on foot-size lotuses and fully framed by a flaming wheel—are unusual for Chola period bronzes. The circular radiating wheel and limbs signify Vishnu’s universal and primordial nature, from which all other deities emanate. Unfortunately a prior condition of bronze disease (a form of corrosion that develops at high levels of humidity) has damaged this sculpture’s surface, obscuring the inscription and many of the formal details.

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